Political Ideologies of American Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Political Ideologies of American Law - Essay Example Communism on the other hand, as defined by West Encyclopedia for American Law is â€Å"a theoretical economic system characterized by the collective ownership of property and by the organization of labor for the common.†. The purpose of communism is to have common ownership of properties. The government regulates access to labor and its produce on to what is satisfactorily needed by each individual in the society. There are different kinds and forms of communism developed by several philosophers such as Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. But we shall focus on the economic reforms that both Libertarianism and Communism wish to offer.   Communism believes that the working class is the solution and that giving more power to the working class, dissolving any division in the society and avoiding any possible exploitation from the capitalist class can eliminate a division in society. This is why the government chooses to regulate the economy, and abolishes private ownership. Communism sees capitalism as a mere exploitation of the working class.   Rousseaus (1978) origin story of the bourgeois political order holds that the ideology of communism, evolves through a pledge by the citizenry, a social pact to establish equality among each other, that they will place themselves under the same conditions and enjoy the same rights (p. 76).   Libertarianism and Communism are two opposite ideology, put it simply, the first gives importance and the sanctity of an individual’s freedom, separate from any control by society. It is the free will and independence of man and his own volition that controls his fate. On the other hand, the Communist is ruled by the society, as a working class, co-equal in everything without any other class or division. It is unity between every man, without having one man better than the other.

In this task, you will explore the process of selecting a research Assignment

In this task, you will explore the process of selecting a research topic. You may use journal articles, scholarly books, and dis - Assignment Example University of Southampton: Mathematical Sciences: databases & indexes Two additional keywords i. Teaching methods ii. Curriculum Key words that yielded the most useful searches i. Misconception ii. Area and perimeter D. Annotated bibliography for five sources identified in your search. Carle, S. (1993). Student Held Misconceptions Regarding Area and Perimeter of Rectangles. Boston: University of Massachusetts. This source focuses on the misconceptions of students in relation to area and perimeter of rectangles. Carle (1993) describes that students enter classroom with personal schemas, anchored in their ideas and experiences, which impact on their interpretation, reception, and recollection of new information. The author’s essentially recommends that the teachers should understand the impacts of such schemas. The author observes that the students manipulate and apply information without difficulties in class, only to forget the content after a while. Consequently, misconceptio ns are entangled into schemas, hence obstructing with the reception of information. Furthermore, the author discusses a framework including Anderson's theory of memory, taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities, Ennis' definition of critical thinking and cognitive psychology. ... The author has explained how the process of identification starts with pre-test analysis, which has five misconceptions including spatial bias, Equality Assumptions, Conversion Conclusion, Increase/Decrease assumption, and Fallacy of multiples. Disclosure of different types of misconceptions has a direct implication on the current study, which primarily deals with the way such misconceptions affect students’ understanding of area and perimeter formulas. Also useful from this source are the several theories that the author has explained which can help teachers in establishing the process of getting rid of misconception as well as initiating education change – this information can help in formulation the solution and recommendation in the current area of study. Although this source has some very relevant information that relates to the current topic, its usefulness is somewhat limited because it was published two decades ago, and many things have since changed. Therefore, its relevance is subject to further investigations on the more recent studies, to find out if any substantial changes have occurred in connection with the author’s findings. The author concludes the thesis by noting that the multi-faceted framework is very useful in investigating ways of building lessons, while focusing on elimination of particular misconceptions. Furthermore, the author makes suggestions on the manner in which the current innovative educational methods can be improved to aid students in understanding of formulas and mathematics in general. I reacted very positively to this source, because I found its multi-faced framework of investigating students’

Historical cost accounting Advantages and disadvantages

Historical cost accounting Advantages and disadvantages Financial policy and accounting Financial policy is to determines hoe a business is to be financed, whether by equity or preference share capital, and extent to which reliance is to be placed upon long term or short term borrowing. In addition the credit and discount policies followed to be determined policies companies have a duty to publish account Historical costing Historical cost is the original monetary value of an economic item. Historical is based on the stable measuring units assumption Historical cost accounting is the situation in which accountants record revenue, expenditure and asset acquisition and disposal at historical cost: that is, the actual amounts of money, or moneys worth, received or paid to complete the transaction. Historical cost accounting is also called because it concern itself with the recording of actual cost on after the date when these are in cured. There are two basic costing system 1 is job costing and 2 is process costing. Actual cost is the part of most modern standard costing system but they are limited value. A basis for the treatment of assets in financial statements where they are recorded at their historical cost, without adjustment for inflation or other price variations What is historical cost accounting? Historical cost is a term used instead of the cost. Cost and historical cost usually mean the original cost at the time of a transaction. Historical cost is helps to distinguish an assets original cost from its replacement cost, current cost, or inflation-adjusted cost. Example, Land purchased in 1992 at cost of $80,000 and still owned by the buyer will be reported on the buyers balance sheet at its cost or historical cost of $80,000 even though its current cost,  replacement cost, and inflation-adjusted cost is much higher today. The cost principle or historical cost principle states that an asset should be reported at its cost (cash or cash equivalent amount) at the time of the exchange transaction and should include all costs necessary to get the asset in place and ready for use. Historical cost principle in accounting Historical cost principle means that assets and liabilities are recorded at their actual historical cost. When an asset is written off, the loss is recorded as the historical cost of the asset less any accumulated depreciation. Typically, the asset would be fully depreciated and thus no loss recorded but this isnt always the case. If the asset is sold the gain or loss is recorded as the amount received for the asset less the historical cost (net of any accumulated depreciation). In both cases, youre using the historical cost as your basis in the asset, but in the write off, you didnt receive anything in return for the asset. To record a sale, you must account for the payment you receive and that amount is of course, the current value of the asset at least its value to someone (the purchaser). Advantages and disadvantages of historical cost accounting Advantages Historical cost accounts are straightforward to produce Historical cost accounts do not record gains until they are realized Historical cost accounts are still used in most accounting systems Disadvantages Historical cost accounts give no indication of current values of the assets of a business Historical cost accounts do not record the opportunity costs of the use of older assets, particularly property which may be recorded at a value based on costs incurred many years ago Historical cost accounts do not measure the loss of value of monetary assets as a result of inflation. Standard costing Standard costing is an important topic of cost accounting. Standard costs are generally connected with a manufacturing companys costs of direct material, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. Rather than conveying the actual costs of direct material, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead to a product, several manufacturers allocate the expected or standard cost. This means that a manufacturers inventory and cost of goods sold will begin amounts reflecting the standard costs, not the actual costs, of a product. Manufacturers, at rest to pay the actual costs. As a result there are almost always differences between the actual costs and the standard costs, and those differences are known as variances. Standard costing and the related variances is a valuable management tool. If a variance arise, management becomes aware that manufacturing costs have different form the standard (planned, probable) costs. If actual costs are greater than standard costs the variance is unfavorable. An unfavorable variance tells management that if everything else stays constant the companys actual profit will be less than planned. If actual costs are less than standard costs the variance is favorable. A favorable variance tells management that if everything else stays constant the actual profit will likely exceed the planned profit. The earlier that the accounting system reports a variance, the earlier that management can direct its notice to the difference from the planned amounts. If we assume that a company uses the perpetual inventory system and that it carry all of its inventory accounts at standard cost (including Direct Materials Inventory or Stores), then the standard cost of a finished product is the sum of the standard costs of the inputs:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. Direct material   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2. Direct labor   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3. Manufacturing overhead   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a. Variable manufacturing overhead   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  b. Fixed manufacturing overhead Standard costs are those cost which are established through identify an objective connection between specific inputs and estimated outputs. Standard costs are usually related to warily analyze phenomenon both in the laborator and in the work place. Marginal costing Marginal cost is the variable cost of one unit product or service. Marginal cost is alternative method of costing to absorption costing. Marginal cost is variable cost charged as a cost of sale and a contribution cost is calculate (sale revenue minus variable cost of sale). Closing stock of work in progress or finished goods are value at the marginal (variable) production cost. Fixed cost is treating as a period cost and charged into the profit and loss account incurred the period of accounting Marginal production cost per unit of an item usually consists of the following. Direct material Direct labour production overheads Direct labour cost might be excluded from marginal costs when the work force is given number of employees on a fixed wages of salary. Even so it is not uncommon for direct labour to be treated as variable cost. When employee are paid a basic wage for a fixed working period. If in doubt you should tread direct labour as a variable cost unless given clear indicator to the country. Direct labour is a often steep cost. With sufficiently short step to be make a labour cost in a variable. The marginal cost of asset usully consist of the marginal cost of production adjusted for stick movement plus the variable selling cost The most important feature of marginal costing is the division of cost into those which are marginal (variable) those which are fixed. The latter are not apportioned to cost centers or products as under and other costing system. Instead they are charged against sale revenues within the period in which are incurred. this deviation of the cost are there application in a appropriate manner is extremely use full in showing management the effect decision, particularly those connected with short term utilization of production capacity. Principles of marginal costing: The marginal principal costing are as Period fixed cost are same any volume of sales and production (provided the level of activity within the relevant range) . selling by an extra item product or service following are as Revenue will be increase by the sale volume of sold item Cost will be increase by the per unit cost Profit will be increase by the contribution amount earned from the extra item The volume of sales falls by one item. Profit will be fall by amount of earned contribution item Profit is measurement should be based on analysis of total contribution. When a unit product is made the extra cost incurred for the manufacture variable Production cost. fixed costs are unaffected, no extra fixed cost are incurred when output is increased. The valuation of closing stock should be at variable production cost Decision accounting The comparison of an alternative courses of action may be facilitated the use of cost data. Latter may be collected by part of a routine or deal with the special problems when it arise strictly speaking, this is not a separate system. It calls upon another information system which indicates the management project likely maximum profit minimum loss. decision on capital expenditure whether to make or buy., what price should be charged as to subcontract and other important matter may all be assisted by the employment of accounting information. A few words on the role of decision making are very appropriate stage. One of the most important function of top management is to make decision. Irrespective of the method of employed decision making implies a choice from a number of alternative. Ther are two basic selection methods First the selection of the particular field in which the final decisions to be made, production is increased, the labour force may large new machine may be introduced: if sale are to be expanded the initial choice between employing more sales men identifying the advertisement to other sale publicity. Once a initial selection has been made, second choice must be follow, if machine is to be purchased Control accounting The comparison of an alternative courses of action may be facilitated the use of cost data. Latter may be collected by part of a routine or deal with the special problems when it arise strictly speaking, this is not a separate system. It calls upon another information system which indicates the management project likely maximum profit minimum loss. decision on capital expenditure whether to make or buy., what price should be charged as to subcontract and other important matter may all be assisted by the employment of accounting information. A few words on the role of decision making are very appropriate stage. One of the most important function of top management is to make decision. Irrespective of the method of employed decision making implies a choice from a number of alternative. Their are two basic selection methods First the selection of the particular field in which the final decisions to be made, production is increased, the labour force may larger new machine may be introduced: if sale are to be expanded the initial choice between employing more sales men identifying the advertisement to other sale publicity. Once a initial selection has been made, second choice must be follow, if machine is to be purchased

The Great Gatsby: The Sympathetic Readers Essay -- Great Gatsby Essays

The Great Gatsby:  Ã‚   The Sympathetic Readers You can easily become very sympathetic to a character by how the author portrays him or her in a story. In The Great Gatsby the main character is an ostentatious bootlegger who pines for one thing, a married woman. Somehow, the author swindles the reader into being sympathetic for Gatsby throughout the entire novel. Fitzgerald makes the reader compassionate by showing how Gatsby had extravagant parties for anyone who wanted to come, how he struggled to get ahead in life, and how he endeavored for Daisy's love.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Gatsby had an exuberant and lavish party almost every night. His house was full of people, some of whom he had never met before. "I believe that on the first night I went to Gatsby's house I was one of the few guests who had actually been invited. People were not invited - they went there." (45) Some may think Gatsby was just trying to swagger. However, if this was the circumstance he would have just invited the people he wanted to show off to. To hold these prodigal parties Gatsby may have obtained money from racketeering but he still used it appropriately. He had dignified caterers, brilliant and luminous lights, scrumptious and exquisite food, and a grand orchestra at all of his parties. Gatsby let people have a great time at his expense. "I like to come," one guest said. "I never care what I do, so I always have a good time. When I was here last a I tore my gown on a chair, and he (Gatsby) asked me my name and address-inside of a week I got a package from Croirier's with a new evening gown in it." This incident was not even Gatsby's fault, but he was kind enough to pay for a brand new, exorbitant dress. Despite Gatsby's ex... ...sby fabricated that he had been the one driving the car. He waited outside Daisy's house just to make sure Tom didn't aggrieve Daisy.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The dictionary defines "great" as an adjective that means remarkable in magnitude, degree, or effectiveness, full of emotion, eminent, distinguished, grand, markedly superior in character or quality, noble, remarkably skilled, marked by enthusiasm, used as a generalized term of approval. All of these terms together though can not adequately describe Gatsby. Nick declares, "They're a rotten crowd. You're worth the whole damn bunch put together." Nick vocally expresses his admiration for The Great Gatsby. The reader is compelled to agree, conjuring up all of the sentiments of the very definitions of "great". Despite some of the methods and antics utilized by Gatsby, in the end we all became sympathetic readers. The Great Gatsby: The Sympathetic Readers Essay -- Great Gatsby Essays The Great Gatsby:  Ã‚   The Sympathetic Readers You can easily become very sympathetic to a character by how the author portrays him or her in a story. In The Great Gatsby the main character is an ostentatious bootlegger who pines for one thing, a married woman. Somehow, the author swindles the reader into being sympathetic for Gatsby throughout the entire novel. Fitzgerald makes the reader compassionate by showing how Gatsby had extravagant parties for anyone who wanted to come, how he struggled to get ahead in life, and how he endeavored for Daisy's love.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Gatsby had an exuberant and lavish party almost every night. His house was full of people, some of whom he had never met before. "I believe that on the first night I went to Gatsby's house I was one of the few guests who had actually been invited. People were not invited - they went there." (45) Some may think Gatsby was just trying to swagger. However, if this was the circumstance he would have just invited the people he wanted to show off to. To hold these prodigal parties Gatsby may have obtained money from racketeering but he still used it appropriately. He had dignified caterers, brilliant and luminous lights, scrumptious and exquisite food, and a grand orchestra at all of his parties. Gatsby let people have a great time at his expense. "I like to come," one guest said. "I never care what I do, so I always have a good time. When I was here last a I tore my gown on a chair, and he (Gatsby) asked me my name and address-inside of a week I got a package from Croirier's with a new evening gown in it." This incident was not even Gatsby's fault, but he was kind enough to pay for a brand new, exorbitant dress. Despite Gatsby's ex... ...sby fabricated that he had been the one driving the car. He waited outside Daisy's house just to make sure Tom didn't aggrieve Daisy.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The dictionary defines "great" as an adjective that means remarkable in magnitude, degree, or effectiveness, full of emotion, eminent, distinguished, grand, markedly superior in character or quality, noble, remarkably skilled, marked by enthusiasm, used as a generalized term of approval. All of these terms together though can not adequately describe Gatsby. Nick declares, "They're a rotten crowd. You're worth the whole damn bunch put together." Nick vocally expresses his admiration for The Great Gatsby. The reader is compelled to agree, conjuring up all of the sentiments of the very definitions of "great". Despite some of the methods and antics utilized by Gatsby, in the end we all became sympathetic readers.

Behind Closed Doors at WorldCom Essay

1.Two General Accounting employees—Dan Renfroe and Angela Walter—made journal entries in the amount of $150 million and $171 million, respectively, without detailed support. It was noted that this was not out of the ordinary at WorldCom. In your opinion, was this a proper accounting practice? Explain. Though this may not be out of the ordinary for WorldCom, this is not a correct accounting practice. The way the entries were made does not comply with the proper account practice according to GAAP. Detailed support is an important part of providing support to a journal entry and it explains the reason or purpose as to why the journal entry was created. 2.Based on GAPP, describe the propriety or impropriety of releasing of $150 million in line cost accruals in the Wireless division over Deloris DiCicco’s objections. Support your position using the authoritative accounting literature. When instructed to reduce the Wireless Division’s line cost by $150 million due to savings from the prior period, DiCicco refused because there was no support for the entry.   WorldCom would prepare an adjusting entry each month to recognize the estimated cost of the period as period expense, by capitalizing the expense as an accrued interest. According to GAAP, a line item cost must be reported as an expense on a company’s income statement. WorldCom capitalized the line expense, instead of expensing it and placed it on the balance sheet as an accrued liability rather than on the income statement as an operating expense. 3.On the topic of capitalizing line costs, critique the rationale included in CEO Scott Sullivan’s White Paper. Based on your own analysis of GAAP, explain the propriety or impropriety of capitalizing line costs in the telecom industry. In the White Paper presented to the Board of Directors, the CEO Scott Sullivan supported the decision to capitalize line costs. Sullivan provided that the White Paper was in line with the company’s goal of maintaining strong growth rate through increasing its capital investment. Management noted that the treatment of the E/R cots as an asset was in no way in any contradiction of the definition of an asset as per FASB Concept Statement No. 6 which states, â€Å"Assets are probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by a particular entity as a result of past transactions or events†. However, as per GAAP, line costs must be reported as an expense in the company’s income statement as these are fundamentally,  ope rating expenses. It was put in the Balance Sheet as an accrued liability rather than in the income statement as an accrued expense. This resulted in falsely projecting income and profits; and concealing huge losses by wrongly capitalizing the line costs. 4.Consider journal entry that recognized $35 million of revenue in 2001 from the EDS contract based on WorlCom’s expectation that the five-year required cumulative minimum payment would not be met. Based on your own analysis of GAAP, explain the propriety to impropriety of this journal entry. This is not in compliance with the provisions of GAAP or SAB 101. Revenue should not be recognized until it is realized or becomes realizable and earned. If we followed this statement the company did not have realized revenue Furthermore, the penalty payments if enforced could not be paid till the year 2005 as stated in the contract. Also, the journal entry resulted in recognizing revenue when it was not earned or realized and thus, overstated the profits. 5.Why do you think the professionals in this case, most of whom are CPA’s, would agree to record a material journal entry contrary to their best professional judgment? I think that in many situations employees were able to twist statements which follow GAAP guidelines. May employees were convinced they were doing the right thing and those that were unwilling to participate were overlooked. Most of the material journal entries which were made contrary to best judgment were so done with a view to mask the declining profits and to show increasing profits, which in turn would increase stock prices. 6.In general, how does the role of Internal Auditing differ from the role of Independent (or External) Auditing? What is the role of Internal Auditing in a well-run corporation? When performed by internal auditors, what is a financial audit versus an operating audit? Do you think WorldCom’s Internal Audit Department was functioning as it should have been? Explain. Internal auditors work within an organization and report to its audit committee and/or directors. They help to design the company’s organizing systems and help develop specific risk management policies. External auditors are independent of the organization they are auditing. They report to the company’s shareholders. They provide their experienced opinion on the truthfulness of the company’s financial statements and perform work on a test basis to monitor systems in place. Internal Auditing  is designed to look at the key risks facing the business and how the business is managing those risks ef fectively. It usually results in recommendations for improvement across departments. Internal auditing is an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance processes. A financial audit is an audit or examination of the financial reporting process, determining the reliability and integrity of the financial statements and preparation of such statements. It also involves an appraisal of the internal controls related to the finance function of the enterprise. An operational audit, on the other hand, is a systematic review and evaluation of an operational unit in terms of its effectiveness and efficiency of operations, accomplishment of its laid down objectives and goals, and determining its appropriateness in the use of various resources. It is clear that the WorldCom’s Internal Audit department was not functioning as it should have been. It was concentrating only on operational audits and totally avoiding financial audits. On the cause of cost-saving, it clearly avoided any and every function which could overlap with the role of the external auditors.

Political philosophy Essay

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. In more casual speech, by extension, â€Å"philosophy† can refer to â€Å"the most basic beliefs, concepts, and attitudes of an individual or group† The word â€Å"philosophy† comes from the Ancient Greek (philosophia), which literally means â€Å"love of wisdom†. [5][6][7] The introduction of the terms â€Å"philosopher† and â€Å"philosophy† has been ascribed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras. Philosophy, which literally means â€Å"the love of wisdom,† is one of the oldest disciplines in history. There are many ideas about philosophers and what they do. Some have even considered the field to be a science that deals with logic and reason. Either way, many famous philosophers have made their contributions known to the world through their writings and their students. Below is a list of the greatest thinkers of all time along with their most important theories about  human nature and other ponderings of the world. Philosophy, which literally means â€Å"the love of wisdom,† is one of the oldest disciplines in history. There are many ideas about philosophers and what they do. Some have even considered the field to be a science that deals with logic and reason. Either way, many famous philosophers have made their contributions known to the world through their writings and their students. Below is a list of the greatest thinkers of all time along with their most important theories about human nature and other ponderings of the world. Karl Marx (1818-1883) Famous For: The Communist Manifesto, co-founder  and father of Socialism & Communism Karl Marx is better known as the â€Å"father of socialism and communism,† one follows the other. Marx has been labeled as a â€Å"revolutionary socialist† for his belief in what has been called dictatorship of Voltaire (1694-1778) Famous For: his philosophical wit French philosopher Francois-Marie Arouet was a well known during the 18th century. He is better known under his pseudonym, Voltaire. Voltaire was an advocate of some of the most basic freedoms, he believed in the freedom of expression, religion and voiced this through his witty writing. One of his the proletariat. In addition to espousing his own philosophies , he was also a sociologist, economist, journalist, and historian. favorite targets was the Catholic church. Socrates (c. 469-399 BC) Famous For: the Socratic Method of logic and a founder of Western philosophy His story began in his hometown of Athens, Greece but unfolded through the writings of his students and fellow philosophers. The field of ethics was the specialty of Socrates and introduced a concept that has been dubbed as elenchus, or the Socratic method. He contributed much to the field of logic and epistimology. Plato (c. 428-348 BC). Famous For: Platonic idealism & the theory of forms Athenian native Plato, and his role in western philosophy can be traced back to when he was student of Socrates . He also excelled in mathematics, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and religion. He founded the Academy in Athens . John Locke (1632-1704) Famous For: theory of mind & Father of Classical Liberalism The effect of English philosopher John Locke has on the world reverberates to this day. His part on the idea of the social contract theory was one he shared with Sir Francis Bacon. The likes of Rousseau, Voltaire, even American revolutionaries have been influenced by his writings. He also offered the theory of mind wherein he states that knowledge is something you are not born with, but learn and experience. Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) Famous For: existential feminism & ethics of ambiguity Simone de Beauvoir is viewed as a philosopher, but she saw herself more as a political activist, intellectual, and a writer. She authored numerous books which include The Second Sex, The Mandarins, and She Came to Stay. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712- 1778) Adam Smith (1723-1790) Famous For: father of modern economics Famous For: General Will and the moral simplicity  of humanity The political philosophy of Rousseau became the basis of the French Revolution. His ideas not only influenced nations, his work is reflected in the modern thinking in regards to education, political, and sociological matters. Two of his books, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and On the Social Contract have had its effect on social and political thinking. Best remembered for his writing of An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Scottish philosopher Adam Smith was a pioneer in the field of political economy. His ideas in the areas of moral  philosophy and economics have been studied throughout the years, and still is. Aristotle (384–322 BC) Famous For: Aristotelian logic & theory of soul The third member who has greatly influenced western philosophy, Aristotle provided ideas in the areas of aesthetics, ethics, logic, metaphysics, politics, and science. He was a student of Plato and teacher to Alexander the great. Nicomachean Ethics is one of the treatises that Aristotle wrote. He believed that ethics should be applied practically, not merely theorizing it. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Famous For: the â€Å"Baconian† method of scientific  investigation and creator of empiricism The English Renaissance and Scientific Revolution benefitted from the work and ideas of Sir Francis Bacon. In addition to being a philosopher, Bacon was likewise an author, jurist, statesman, orator, and scientist. He was instrumental in advocating the use of the â€Å"inductive† method when it came to scientific matters, this scientific method was also called â€Å"Baconian method†. Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) Famous For: Law of Continuity, Monads, and the Transcendental Law of Homogeneity Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz holds a special place in the annals of philosophy and mathematics. As a  mathematician, he refined the use of infinitesimal calculus. As a philosopher, he is best remembered for his â€Å"optimism† and as an advocate of rationalism along with Descartes and Spinoza. He also presented the Law of Continuity. Confucius (551-479 BC) Famous For: The Golden Rule and Confucianism Born during the Spring & Autumn era in Chinese history, Confucius and his ideas on social and personal relationships became a school of thought that many Chinese embraced. He was a voracious writer for which includes the Five Classics in Chinese literature. He believed that proper moral behavior is best practiced, than morality being made  a rule. Rene Descartes (1596-1650). Famous For: being the Father of Modern Philosophy, â€Å"Cartesian† coordinate system & â€Å"I think, therefore I am† Rene’ Descartes influence on the world of philosophy is evident at today’s universities. His book Meditations of First Philosophy is still being used. Perhaps this statement attributed to Descartes will ring a bell, â€Å"I think, therefore I am. † Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Famous For: transcendental idealism & metaphysics This 18th century German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, contends that â€Å"reason is the source of morality. † His ideas continue to resonate in the halls of academic philosophy. The influence of these ideas is evident in present day thinking on the subject of ethics, epistemology, aesthetics, politics, and metaphysics. In his publication of Critique of Pure Reason, this was his attempt to combine reason with experience to prove failures of â€Å"traditional philosophy. † Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) Famous For: life-affirmation & statement â€Å"God is dead† German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and his ideas covered a lot ground and as a result, people began to raise questions they normally would not. The main crux of Nietzsche’s work was the idea of life-affirmation, but he also presented ideas such as  Will to power, perspectivism, master-slave morality, and the Apollonian/Dionysian dichotomy. Albert Camus (1913-1960) Famous For: absurdism & 1957 Nobel Prize for literature Albert Camus received a Nobel Prize for literature in 1957. The award was given in recognition for his attempt to create awareness of the plight of â€Å"the human conscience†. Camus is associated with the tenet known as â€Å"absurdism. † This French-Algeria born philosopher was also an author and journalist. C. S. Lewis (1898-1963). Famous For: The Chronicles of Narnia, â€Å"Screwtape Letters† & â€Å"Mere Christianity† C. S. Lewis was an academic scholar and Christian  apologist. Some of his works are well known, these include,The Chronicles of Narnia, The Screwtape Hannah Arendt (1906-1975) Famous For: being a political theorist & concept of â€Å"Homo faber† Hannah Arendt refused to be labeled as a philosopher on the basis that her work revolved around â€Å"men, not man. † Philosophy deals with man in the singular, Letters and The Problem of Pain. He and J. R. R. Tolkien were friends and part of the English department at Oxford. solo, which is different to what she was, a political theorist, dealing with men and the world around them. Hanna’s passion involved work in the fields of  authority, democracy, the nature of power, politics, and totalitarianism. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Famous For: absolutism for the soveriegn & political philosophy Thomas Hobbes is dubbed as the founder of the â€Å"social contract† tradition. This English philosopher wrote in the mid 17th century, Leviathan, which laid the groundwork for the introduction of the social contract theory. He also was an advocate of liberal thought and â€Å"absolutism for the sovereign. † Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) Famous For: being one of the founders of analytic philosophy Bertrand Arthur William Russell is remembered in  the field of philosophy as a proponent of analytic philosophy. One of his essays has been labeled as the ideal of philosophy, the essay is entitled On Denoting. The British wanted to go against idealism, Russell was their leader. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) Famous For: the philosophy of existentialism Jean Paul Sartre believed that â€Å"existence precedes essence. † Sartre did not shy from being linked to the ideal of existentialism. He applied his ideals on other areas of his life. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Famous For: Pascal’s law in mathematics & Pascal’s wager in philosophy The name of Blaise Pascal is frequently associated  with mathematics. As a philosopher, he proposed what we know as Pascal’s wager, in which people, in general, will bet their life on the existence or non existence of God. Michel Foucault (1926-1984) Famous For: Structuralism and Genealogy What does it take to make another man do your bidding? This was the goal of Michel Foucault. Most of his theories touched on the topic of the â€Å"nature of power† and its purpose. His writings revolved around the social institutions and â€Å"human science†. Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965) Famous For: the idea of the Reverence for Life Albert Schweitzer was a man with many facets. His  goal and philosophy of life was to have a â€Å"Reverence for Life†. He believed that civilization had cast aside its foundation in ethics. His published works, The Birth of the Clinic and The Order of Things helped highlight his views on â€Å"structuralism. † David Hume (1711-1776) Famous For: problem of causation & his book A Treatise of Human Nature One of the pillars of the Scottish Enlightenment, philosopher David Hume is credited with the â€Å"founding document of cognitive science† in his book A Treatise of Human Nature. Hume made every attempt to establish a naturalistic approach in understanding â€Å"man†. One of his arguments, â€Å"Reason is, and ought only to be slave of the passions,† is a longstanding idea that says, â€Å"allow desires to dictate reason. † Origen (c. 185-253) Famous For: one of the early Church Fathers and theologian Origen has been cited by scholars over the centuries, by academics, pastors, priests, and students. He wrote several treatises that covered philosophical theology, exegesis of the bible and textual criticism. He was influenced in his thinking by both Plato and Aristotle. In his discussions and writings, he always alluded to scripture, which he believed is divinely inspired by God. Thomas Paine (1737-1809). Famous For: writing Common Sense during the American Revolution As a political activist, Thomas Paine is regarded who helped two revolutionary wars. A pamphlet he wrote in 1776, entitled Common Sense was instrumental in igniting the fires of freedom and a reason to revolt during the American Revolution. Years later, he wrote Rights of Man that justified the French Revolution. Henry David Thoreau (1817- 1862) Famous For: his books Walden & Civil Disobedience The book Walden was Thoreau’s attempt to express a desire towards living a simple life in nature. Because of another book he wrote, Civil Disobedience, he had been viewed as an anarchist. Thoreau’s idea of giving up illusory ideals in exchange for the true needs of life was something he advocated throughout his life. John Dewey (1859-1952) Famous For: for his ideas on pragmatism & educational progressivism One of the first men to present the idea of John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Famous For: being the â€Å"most influential English speaking philosopher of the 19th century† John Stuart is regarded as â€Å"the most influential pragmatism as a philosophical concept, Dewey also espoused Reflective Thinking. He believed in the philosophy of education, in which he views  education as a â€Å"social continuity of life. † This is why he championed Educational Progressivism. English speaking philosopher of the 19th century†. Mainly, he was a defender of political philosophy and he comes from the school of utilitarianism. As a member of the British parliament, he played a role highlighting â€Å"liberal political philosophy. † William James (1842-1910) Famous For: the philosophy of religion and theory of emotion William James was part of the philosophical school of pragmatism. More importantly was his application of that school of thought on the philosophy of religion. He also attempted to explain why, if we see a snake, we fear the snake and run. In his theory of emotion, James contends that we see a snake, we run; therefore, we fear the snake. Erich Fromm (1900-1980) Famous For: orientation of character As a humanistic philosopher, Erich Fromm has been linked to the school of critical theory. Some of his exemplary ideas include â€Å"being and having modes of existence. † Escape from Freedom is one of Fromm’s books which tries to explaing man’s changing view of freedom. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). Famous For: Machiavellianism & The Prince Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli  is considered the founder of political science and an expert in political ethics. His main cointributions include political philosophy and realism. His book, The Prince has been viewed as a masterpiece that deals with political philosophy. John Calvin (1509-1564) Famous For: Calvinism & Doctine of Predestination Calvin developed a point of reference in Christianity the has been known as Calvinism. His attempt to explain the â€Å"doctrine of predestination† as it pertains to God and salvation continues to be debated to this day. The Congregational, Presbyterian, and Reformed church base their tenets on the teaching of  John Calvin. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) Famous For: father of existentialism The philosophy of religion and the idea of existentialism are two schools of thought that has Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) Famous For: War and Peace and Anna Karenina As a social reformer and moral thinker, Leo Tolstoy is known for his novels, War and Peace and Anna been linked to Kierkegaard. Most of his ideas revolve on the issue on how a person lives as an individual. Karenina. He helped shape the idea of Christian anarchist thinking and even pushed the idea of anarcho pacifism. Parmenides (c. 515-450 BC) Famous For: Eleatic school of philosophy. Parmenides founded the Eleatic school of philosophy sometime in the 5th century BC. He presents us with two views of reality, â€Å"what is† and â€Å"the way of opinion. † A quote from him is telling on how he affected western philosophy, â€Å"Thought and being are the same. † Mozi (c. 470-391 BC) Famous For: Mohism Chinese philosopher Mozi was the moving force in the establishment of the school of Mohism. Mozi was a proponent of moral philosophy and ethics. His teaching encouraged self-reflection and being real, not just obedience and ceremony. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) Famous For: Thomism and Summa Theologica. Even though he was a priest, Thomas Aquinas and his philosophy have influenced modern philosophy. He was the father of Thomism, he believed that the truth is true regardless of the source. His work in Summa Theologica and Summa con Gentiles are important sources of discourse that continue to be used today. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759- 1797) Famous For: Feminist philosophy & A Vinidication of the Rights of Woman Mary Wollstonecraft believed that women should be treated equally the same way and that the social order should be based on reason. She is considered as the earliest of feminist philosophers. Her book A Vinidication of the Rights of Woman speaks of women not being inferior to men. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Famous For: Altruism & positivism Comte was one of the founders of sociology and the principle of positivism, better known as the positive philosophy. Historians view him as the first of the scientific philosophers. He also conceived the word altruism, a doctrine that says people have an obligation to help or serve others. Avicenna (c. 980-1037) Famous For: The Book of Healing Persian philosopher Avicenna was a proponent of Islamic philosophy on which the Avicennian philosophy is based. The Book of Healing is his most famous work that has become an encyclopedia on philosophy and science. In that book he discusses the philosophy of science. Emma Goldman (1869-1940) Famous For: anarchist political philosophy Goldman comes from the philosophical school of of anarchism. She was a vocal supporter of womens rights and other social issues. The school of anarchism believes a state is harmful, unnecessary, and undesirable, making Goldman, anti-state. Epicurus (341-270 BC) Famous For: Epicurianism & Materialism Epicurus’s philosophy is centered on two things, â€Å"peace and freedom from fear† known as ataraxia  and â€Å"the absence of pain†, aponia. In his view, pain and pleasure are barometers of good and evil. This school of thought is known as Epicurianism. Saint Augustine of Hippo (354- 430) Famous For: Catholic Church & City of God The idea of the â€Å"Catholic Church† comes from the work of Saint Augustine. His writings, City of God and Confessions have influenced western philosophy and are still read today. He believed that man is the unity of soul and body, a perfect combination. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951) Famous For: Philosophical Investigations & fideism Wittgenstein was a man who buried himself in the  roots meaning â€Å"the love of wisdom. † Philosophers are persons who have a compelling need to pursue wisdom. Since the beginning of time, wise man and women have dedicated themselves to asking â€Å"Big Questions†.

Drugs Crime and Prohibition essays

Drugs Crime and Prohibition essays Do drugs really cause crime, or is it our governments way of controlling the communities? Many people blame drugs for every problem in our society, but is it the true evil in our society? No one person can answer that question. There are only opinions and supposed theories on this issue. We have been taught over the years that drugs were bad and that they only affected the poor and less fortunate, and turned them into crazy criminals, but this isnt true to any extent. The laws controlling and prohibiting drugs are the true culprit. Would our crime levels decline if drugs were legalized to some extent, or would we just increase the destruction of our country? Over the past fifty years, prohibition has been proven to actually increase crime and drug use instead of its intended purpose, which was to extinguish the use of illicit drugs in the United States. We constantly here of prison over crowding, and why is that? Most of our prisons are filled with drug offenders, ranging from use to distribution of supposed illicit drugs. What is our country coming to? The purpose of this research paper is to view the advantages and disadvantages of the legalization of illicit drugs in the United States. I will examine each side of this major problem plaguing our fine country from past to present. People wake everyday to their normal and monotonous life without even thinking about what they are doing. They do not realize that they have been conditioned by the government and its laws to obey and follow the supposed norm of society. What is the norms of society, and who set the guidelines for them? No one can explain how these norms came about, they only know that they must follow them, or they could get in trouble with the law. We are going into the twenty first century, and we still follow laws that were passed hundreds of years ago. Why is this? We are a highly advanced country, but we spend time, lives and money on abiding by laws that we...